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The Social Context of Open-Source Software
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Společenský kontext otevřeného software
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It is truly written: the best hacks start out as personal solutions to the author's everyday problems, and spread because the problem turns out to be typical for a large class of users. This takes us back to the matter of rule 1, restated in a perhaps more useful way: | Je velkou pravdou, že nejlepší programy začínají tak, že autor sám potřebujete vyřešit své každodenní problémy, a šíří se proto, že se ukáže, že takový problém trápí mnoho ostatních uživatelů. To nás vede zpět k pravidlu 1, které je přeformulováno do možná užitečnější podoby: |
18. To solve an interesting problem, start by finding a problem that is interesting to you. | 18. Pokud chcete pracovat na zajímavém problému, začněte tím, že naleznete problém, který zajímá vás osobně. |
So it was with Carl Harris and the ancestral popclient, and so with me and fetchmail. But this has been understood for a long time. The interesting point, the point that the histories of Linux and fetchmail seem to demand we focus on, is the next stage -- the evolution of software in the presence of a large and active community of users and co-developers. | Tak začal i Carl Harris s popclientem a já s fetchmailem. To se ale ví už dávno. To zajímavé, co nám Linux a fetchmail přinesl, je další krok. Vývoj programů ve velké skupině vývojářů a uživatelů. |
In ``The Mythical Man-Month'', Fred Brooks observed that programmer time is not fungible; adding developers to a late software project makes it later. He argued that the complexity and communication costs of a project rise with the square of the number of developers, while work done only rises linearly. This claim has since become known as ``Brooks's Law'' and is widely regarded as a truism. But if Brooks's Law were the whole picture, Linux would be impossible. | V knize The Mythical Man-Month Fred Brooks tvrdí, že programátorův čas není nastavitelný. Pokud přidáte programátory do projektu, který se opožďuje, opozdí se ještě více. Dokazuje, že složitost a problémy s komunikací se zvyšují se čtvercem počtu programátorů, zatímco množství práce stoupá pouze lineárně. Toto tvrzení se později stalo Brookovým zákonem, který je často považován za předmět víry. Kdyby ale tento zákon platil beze zbytku, Linux by nemohl existovat. |
Gerald Weinberg's classic ``The Psychology Of Computer Programming'' supplied what, in hindsight, we can see as a vital correction to Brooks. In his discussion of ``egoless programming'', Weinberg observed that in shops where developers are not territorial about their code, and encourage other people to look for bugs and potential improvements in it, improvement happens dramatically faster than elsewhere. | Klasická kniha Geralda Weinberga "The Psychology Of Computer Programming" obsahuje něco, co můžeme při zpětném pohledu považovat za nesmírně důležitou opravu Brookova tvrzení. V jeho diskuzi "nesobeckého programování" Weinberg tvrdí, že ve skupinách, ve kterých si vývojáři nechrání svůj kód a vybízejí ostatní, aby jim pomohli vyhledávat chyby a navrhovat vylepšení, projekty probíhají mnohem rychleji než jinde. |
Weinberg's choice of terminology has perhaps prevented his analysis from gaining the acceptance it deserved -- one has to smile at the thought of describing Internet hackers as ``egoless''. But I think his argument looks more compelling today than ever. | Weinbergova terminologie možná zabránila tomu, aby jeho analýza získala takové přijetí, jaké si zasluhovala, člověk se musí usmát při myšlence, že internetovští hackeři jsou "nesobečtí". Nicméně, myslím, že jeho argumenty nebyly nikdy tak aktuální jako dnes. |
The history of Unix should have prepared us for what we're learning from Linux (and what I've verified experimentally on a smaller scale by deliberately copying Linus's methods). That is, that while coding remains an essentially solitary activity, the really great hacks come from harnessing the attention and brainpower of entire communities. The developer who uses only his or her own brain in a closed project is going to fall behind the developer who knows how to create an open, evolutionary context in which bug-spotting and improvements get done by hundreds of people. | Historie Unixu nás měla připravit na to, co se nyní učíme z Linuxu (a co jsem v menším měřítku ověřil experimentálně tak, že jsem úmyslně kopíroval Linusovy metody). Tedy to, že zatímco kódování zůstává víceméně samotářskou aktivitou, opravdu velké myšlenky se uskutečňují tehdy, pokud je využita pozornost a mozky celé společnosti. Vývojář, který využívá pouze vlastní mozek v uzavřeném projektu musí zaostat za vývojářem, který dokáže iniciovat otevřený evoluční projekt, ve kterém se odhalování chyb a vylepšení věnují stovky lidí. |
But the traditional Unix world was prevented from pushing this approach to the ultimate by several factors. One was the legal contraints of various licenses, trade secrets, and commercial interests. Another (in hindsight) was that the Internet wasn't yet good enough. | Tradičnímu Unixovému světu bylo zabráněno v dotažení tohoto přístupu několika faktory. Jedním z nich byla právní omezení, různé licence, obchodní tajemství a zájmy. Další překážkou (při zpětném pohledu) bylo to, že Internet ještě nebyl na dostatečné úrovni. |
Before cheap Internet, there were some geographically compact communities where the culture encouraged Weinberg's ``egoless'' programming, and a developer could easily attract a lot of skilled kibitzers and co-developers. Bell Labs, the MIT AI Lab, UC Berkeley -- these became the home of innovations that are legendary and still potent. | Před levným Internetem existovala prostorově omezená společenství, jejichž kultura podporovala Weinbergovo "nesobecké programování", ve kterých mohl programátor snadno přilákat mnoho diváků a spolupracovníků. Bellovy laboratoře, MIT AI laboratoře, UC Berkeley se staly legendárními domovy vynálezů a jsou stále velmi plodné. |
Linux was the first project to make a conscious and successful effort to use the entire world as its talent pool. I don't think it's a coincidence that the gestation period of Linux coincided with the birth of the World Wide Web, and that Linux left its infancy during the same period in 1993-1994 that saw the takeoff of the ISP industry and the explosion of mainstream interest in the Internet. Linus was the first person who learned how to play by the new rules that pervasive Internet made possible. | Linux byl prvým projektem, který vědomě a úspěšně využil celý svět jako svoji studnici talentů. Nemyslím si, že je náhodné, že Linux vznikal v době zrodu WWW a že Linux opustil svá batolecí léta se začátkem nástupu Internetu do běžného povědomí(1993-1994). Linus byl první, který se naučil hrát podle nových pravidel, která nastolil všudypřítomný Internet. |
While cheap Internet was a necessary condition for the Linux model to evolve, I think it was not by itself a sufficient condition. Another vital factor was the development of a leadership style and set of cooperative customs that could allow developers to attract co-developers and get maximum leverage out of the medium. | Zatimco levný Internet byl nutnou podmínkou pro to, aby se Linuxový model uplatnil, myslím, že to nebyla podmínka dostačující. Dalším nesmírně důležitým faktorem byl vývoj stylu vedení a vytvoření zvyků, které umožnily vývojářům získat další spolupracovníky a využít všechny možnosti tohoto media. |
But what is this leadership style and what are these customs? They cannot be based on power relationships -- and even if they could be, leadership by coercion would not produce the results we see. Weinberg quotes the autobiography of the 19th-century Russian anarchist Pyotr Alexeyvich Kropotkin's ``Memoirs of a Revolutionist'' to good effect on this subject: | Ale jaký je styl vedení a jaké jsou tyto zvyky? Tyto zvyklosti nemohou být založeny na síle, a i pokud by byly, tak by vedení z pozice síly nemohlo přinést výsledky, které vidíme. Weinberg cituje z autobiografie "Memoáry revoluce", kterou v 19. století napsal ruský anarchista Petr Alexejevič Kropotkin. |
``Having been brought up in a serf-owner's family, I entered active life, like all young men of my time, with a great deal of confidence in the necessity of commanding, ordering, scolding, punishing and the like. But when, at an early stage, I had to manage serious enterprises and to deal with [free] men, and when each mistake would lead at once to heavy consequences, I began to appreciate the difference between acting on the principle of command and discipline and acting on the principle of common understanding. The former works admirably in a military parade, but it is worth nothing where real life is concerned, and the aim can be achieved only through the severe effort of many converging wills.'' | "Jelikož jsem se narodil v rodině, která vlastnila nevolníky, započal jsem svůj aktivní život, jako všichni mladí muži v mém věku, s pevnou vírou v nutnost povelů, příkazů, trestů atd. Brzy jsem ale musel řídit důležité záležitosti a jednat se [svobodnými] muži, a zde měla každá chyba závažné následky. Začal jsem oceňovat rozdíl mezi činností na základě příkazů a disciplíny a činností na základě společného porozumění. To prvé obdivuhodně funguje při vojenské přehlídce, ale nemá žádnou cenu ve skutečném životě, kde cíle může být dosaženo pouze úsilím mnoha spolupracujících myslí." |
The ``severe effort of many converging wills'' is precisely what a project like Linux requires -- and the ``principle of command'' is effectively impossible to apply among volunteers in the anarchist's paradise we call the Internet. To operate and compete effectively, hackers who want to lead collaborative projects have to learn how to recruit and energize effective communities of interest in the mode vaguely suggested by Kropotkin's ``principle of understanding''. They must learn to use Linus's Law. | Velké úsilí mnoha spolupracujících mozků, to je přesně to, co projekt jako Linux vyžaduje, a model řízení založený na povelech je zcela nemožný v prostředí dobrovolníků v anarchistickém ráji, který nazýváme Internet. Aby mohli pracovat a soutěžit efektivně, programátoři, kteří chtějí vést projekty založené na spolupráci, se musí naučit, jak získat a povzbuzovat skupiny lidí se společným zájmem, jak neurčitě naznačuje Kropotkin svým "principem porozumění". Musí se naučit využívat Linusův zákon. |
Earlier I referred to the ``Delphi effect'' as a possible explanation for Linus's Law. But more powerful analogies to adaptive systems in biology and economics also irresistably suggest themselves. The Linux world behaves in many respects like a free market or an ecology, a collection of selfish agents attempting to maximize utility which in the process produces a self-correcting spontaneous order more elaborate and efficient than any amount of central planning could have achieved. Here, then, is the place to seek the ``principle of understanding''. | Dříve jsem se zmínil o "Delphi efektu" jako o možném vysvětlení Linusova zákona. Ještě silnější analogie s přizpůsobivými systémy ale nabízí biologie a ekonomie. Linusův svět se v mnoha ohledech chová jako volný trh nebo ekologie, společnost sobeckých individuí, která se snaží maximalizovat užitek a při tomto ději vzniká sebeopravující se spontánní řád více propracovaný a účinnější, než může dosáhnout jakékoliv centrální plánování. Zde bychom měli hledat "princip porozumění". |
The ``utility function'' Linux hackers are maximizing is not classically economic, but is the intangible of their own ego satisfaction and reputation among other hackers. (One may call their motivation ``altruistic'', but this ignores the fact that altruism is itself a form of ego satisfaction for the altruist). Voluntary cultures that work this way are not actually uncommon; one other in which I have long participated is science fiction fandom, which unlike hackerdom explicitly recognizes ``egoboo'' (the enhancement of one's reputation among other fans) as the basic drive behind volunteer activity. | "Užitková funkce", kterou linuxoví programátoři maximalizují, není klasicky ekonomická, ale lze ji spojit s uspokojením vlastního já a získáním dobré reputace mezi ostatními programátory. (Někdo by mohl nazvat toto chování altruistické, ale tento pohled ignoruje fakt, že altruismus je sám o sobě formou uspokojení vlastního já pro altruistu.) Dobrovolná společenství, která pracují podobným způsobem, nejsou ve skutečnosti vzácná, podobným, ve kterém jsem zapojen již velmi dlouho, je okruh přátel science fiction, kde je výslovně uznáváno, že hlavním motivem pro spolupráci je zvýšení vlastní reputace mezi ostatními. |
Linus, by successfully positioning himself as the gatekeeper of a project in which the development is mostly done by others, and nurturing interest in the project until it became self-sustaining, has shown an acute grasp of Kropotkin's ``principle of shared understanding''. This quasi-economic view of the Linux world enables us to see how that understanding is applied. | Linus tím, že se úspěšně postavil do role ochránce projektu, který je z velké části rozvíjen někým jiným a tím, že získával podporu pro projekt, dokud se projekt nestal sebeudržujícím, ukázal, že plně pochopil Kropotkinovo pravidlo sdíleného porozumění. Kvasi-ekonomický pohled na Linuxův svět nám umožňuje pochopit, jak se tento princip uplatňuje. |
We may view Linus's method as a way to create an efficient market in ``egoboo'' -- to connect the selfishness of individual hackers as firmly as possible to difficult ends that can only be achieved by sustained cooperation. With the fetchmail project I have shown (albeit on a smaller scale) that his methods can be duplicated with good results. Perhaps I have even done it a bit more consciously and systematically than he. | Můžeme nahlížet na Linusovy metody jako na způsob, jak vytvořit účinný trh v uspokojování vlastního já tím, že připoutá sobectví individuelních programátorů co nejpevněji k obtížným cílům, které mohou být dosaženy pouze vytrvalou spoluprací. V projektu fetchmailu jsem ukázal (ačkoli v menším měřítku), že tato metoda může být napodobena s dobrými výsledky. Možná, že jsem vše dělal s plnějším vědomím a systematičtěji než Linus sám. |
Many people (especially those who politically distrust free markets) would expect a culture of self-directed egoists to be fragmented, territorial, wasteful, secretive, and hostile. But this expectation is clearly falsified by (to give just one example) the stunning variety, quality and depth of Linux documentation. It is a hallowed given that Surfers hate documenting; how is it, then, that Linux hackers generate so much of it? Evidently Linux's free market in egoboo works better to produce virtuous, other-directed behavior than the massively-funded documentation shops of commercial software producers. | Mnoho lidí, zejména těch, kteří politicky nedůvěřují volnému trhu, očekávají, že společnost sebeřídících egoistů bude fragmentována, bude ochraňovat svá území, bude plýtvat zdroji, vše tajit a bude k sobě nepřátelská. Ale toto očekávání je jasně vyvráceno například překvapující různorodostí, kvalitou a hloubkou dokumentace Linuxu. Je to zázrak, když si uvědomíme, jak programátoři nenávidí psaní dokumentace. Jak je tedy možné, že programátoři Linuxu ji produkují tolik? Je zřejmé, že Linuxův volný trh v sebeuspokojování funguje lépe při nastolení ctnostného chování než masivně financované dokumentační útvary poskytovatelů komerčního software. |
Both the fetchmail and Linux kernel projects show that by properly rewarding the egos of many other hackers, a strong developer/coordinator can use the Internet to capture the benefits of having lots of co-developers without having a project collapse into a chaotic mess. So to Brooks's Law I counter-propose the following: | Fetchmail i Linux ukázaly, že pokud dostatečně odměním ego mnoha jiných programátorů, silný vývojář-koordinátor může využít Internet, aby získal mnoho spolupracovníků, aniž se projekt zhroutí v chaotický zmatek. Takže já navrhuji následující protiargument k Brookově zákonu. |
19: Provided the development coordinator has a medium at least as good as the Internet, and knows how to lead without coercion, many heads are inevitably better than one. | 19. Pokud má koordinátor projektu k dispozici medium alespoň tak dobré jako Internet a dokáže vést bez příkazů, mnoho hlav je nevyhnutelně lepší než jedna. |
I think the future of open-source software will increasingly belong to people who know how to play Linus's game, people who leave behind the cathedral and embrace the bazaar. This is not to say that individual vision and brilliance will no longer matter; rather, I think that the cutting edge of open-source software will belong to people who start from individual vision and brilliance, then amplify it through the effective construction of voluntary communities of interest. | Myslím si, že budoucnost otevřeného software bude stále více patřit lidem, kteří vědí, jak se chovat v Linusově hře, lidem, kteří opustí katedrálu a vezmou si tržiště za své. Tím nechci říci, že už nezáleží na individuálních vizích a velkých schopnostech. Spíše si myslím, že budoucnost patří lidem, kteří začnou s individuální vizí a velkými schopnostmi a ty potom zmnohonásobí ve vytvořených skupinách se společným zájmem. |
And perhaps not only the future of open-source software. No closed-source developer can match the pool of talent the Linux community can bring to bear on a problem. Very few could afford even to hire the more than two hundred people who have contributed to fetchmail! | A možná nejen budoucnost otevřeného software. Žádný vývojář v uzavřeném projektu nemůže mít takovou nabídku talentů pro vyřešení problému, jako se nachází ve společenství Linuxu. Jen málokdo si může dovolit najmout více než 200 lidí, kteří přispívali do fetchmailu. |
Perhaps in the end the open-source culture will triumph not because cooperation is morally right or software ``hoarding'' is morally wrong (assuming you believe the latter, which neither Linus nor I do), but simply because the closed-source world cannot win an evolutionary arms race with open-source communities that can put orders of magnitude more skilled time into a problem. | Možná že nakonec kultura otevřeného software zvítězí ne proto, že je morálně správná, nebo že hamounění software je morálně špatné (za předpokladu, že tomu druhému věříte, já ani Linus ne), ale jednoduše proto, že uzavřené projekty nemohou vyhrát v evolučním zápase s otevřeným systémem, který může vynaložit o několik řádů více kvalifikovaného času na řešení problémů. |
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